Work engagement: individual and situational antecedents and its relationship with turnover intention.
| Autor | de Oliveira, Lucia Barbosa |
| Cargo | Texto en ingles - Ensayo |
1 Introduction
Human resource management is of utmost importance for the survival, growth and competitiveness of organizations, given that their human resources involve unique combinations of knowledge and skills that may bring a competitive differential (Barney & Wright, 1998; Guerrero & Barraud-Didier, 2004). Over the last decades, understanding the determinants of work engagement has been a concern for both human resource managers and researchers, due to evidence showing that focused and energized employees, willing to give their best at work, may give important contributions to business results (Kahn, 1990; Bakker, Albrecht, & Leiter, 2011).
In this sense, the objective of this study was to evaluate antecedents of work engagement, including both individual characteristics and situational factors. Regarding individual characteristics, we investigated the relationship between engagement and core self-evaluations, which encompass self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability (Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2003). The situational factors considered were employees' perceptions regarding their organization's human resource management practices, and the quality of their relationship with their immediate superiors. Finally, we also analyzed the relationship between engagement and turnover intention.
Quantitative research was conducted with a sample of 299 employees who had undergone higher education, employed by public and private organizations of different sizes and sectors of the Brazilian economy.
The relevance of the study lies in its contribution to the literature on work engagement, a topic that has received relatively little attention from Brazilian researchers, despite its popularity among practitioners. Evidence indicates that work engagement has positive effects on individual and organizational performance (Bakker, Demerouti, & Sanz-Vergel, 2014; Christian, Garza, & Slaughter, 2011), which also makes studies on the subject relevant. In addition, the study innovates by simultaneously analyzing individual characteristics and situational aspects associated with work engagement, as the job demands-resources (JD-R) model points out (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). In our literature review, we did not find any studies based on this approach conducted in Brazil. From an applied perspective, the results may help guide human resource professionals who wish to create a work environment that fosters the engagement of employees.
2 Theoretical background
2.1 Work engagement
Various definitions of work engagement can be found in the literature. Common to most of them is the idea that engagement is associated with a desirable condition that promotes individual and organizational performance. Kahn (1990), one of the pioneers in the study of this construct (Shuck & Wollard, 2010), describes engaged employees as those who are physically, cognitively, and emotionally connected with their roles at work.
For this study, engagement was defined as a positive and rewarding work-related psychological state, characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption, as proposed by Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzales-Roma, and Bakker (2002). Vigor refers to high levels of energy, resilience and persistence, even when problems at work arise. Dedication is associated with a sense of meaning, enthusiasm, and pride while working. Absorption, in turn, involves a state of total concentration, happiness, and immersion at work, in which time passes quickly and from which it is difficult to fully detach (Salanova, Agut, & Peiro, 2005; Schaufeli et al., 2002).
Because it is relatively recent, there is a debate over whether engagement is different from other positive concepts which measure an employee's relationship with his/her work (Christian et al., 2011; Hallberg & Schaufeli, 2006; Macey and Schneider, 2008), or if it is only "old wine in a new bottle" (Saks, 2006, p. 601). Regarding job satisfaction, Bakker (2011) argues that the concepts are different, since engagement combines a high level of pleasure at work (dedication) with high activation (vigor, absorption), while job satisfaction is supposedly a more passive form of well-being. In other words, in this case, the degree of activation or energy associated with engagement is greater than that of satisfaction (Macey & Schneider, 2008; Warr & Inceoglu, 2012).
Christian et al. (2011) quantitatively analyzed the relationship between work engagement, job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. The evidence showed that, although there is a correlation between these constructs, engagement provides a relevant contribution to organizational studies. The authors point out that "the extent to which individuals invest their 'full selves' in the execution of their work appears to be a different concept from the extent to which individuals are satisfied with their jobs or value their organizations" (Christian et al., 2011, p. 120). Similarly, the study by Hallberg and Schaufeli (2006) also showed that work engagement, work involvement, and organizational commitment are different constructs. Finally, Bakker et al. (2011) point out that there is sufficient evidence to consider engagement as an important motivational construct independent from job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior. According to the authors, these constructs are, in reality, consequences of engagement.
Research on engagement has sought to identify its antecedents and consequents. Regarding the consequences of engagement, the literature has pointed out relationships between engagement and various positive effects, both individual and organizational. Engaged individuals invest more in their physical, cognitive and emotional development, and are more likely to have superior performance. They work harder because they are more focused on their responsibilities and are more emotionally attached to their tasks (Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, 2010; Bakker et al., 2014). Evidence also indicates that engaged employees show higher levels of extra-role behavior, performing actions that go beyond their responsibilities (Bakker et al., 2014).
In relation to the antecedents of engagement, Kahn (1990) associated engagement with the context of work and individual characteristics. Similarly, the job demands-resources model establishes that personal resources and job resources are antecedents of engagement, and that job demands could contribute to exhaustion and burnout (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Bakker et al., 2014).
Personal resources may be defined as positive self-assessments associated with an individual's ability to control and positively affect the environment, contributing to goal setting, motivation, performance, life satisfaction, and other desirable outcomes, including engagement (Bakker et al., 2014). Among the personal resources evaluated in the literature, self-esteem, self-efficacy, optimism, and internal locus of control were identified as positive antecedents of work engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008; Bakker, 2011; Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti & Schaufeli, 2007; 2009).
Judge et al. (1997) proposed a construct called core self-evaluations, associated with assessments that individuals make of themselves, the world, and others, which would have an important influence on their levels of job satisfaction and performance. According to the authors, different perceptions and behaviors are affected by these self-evaluations, although most people are not aware of this influence. Individuals with positive core self-evaluations evaluate themselves favorably in different situations, that is, they see themselves as capable, valuable, and in control of their own lives.
The core self-evaluations construct is composed by four traits: (1) self-esteem, or the degree to which one sees oneself as capable and valuable; (2) generalized self-efficacy, or the judgment about one's ability to mobilize cognitive resources and adopt strategies to deal with specific situations; (3) locus of control, or one's belief regarding one's ability to exercise control over events one experiences; (4) neuroticism (the opposite of emotional stability), a personality trait that involves the tendency to experience negative feelings such as anxiety, fear, and depression (Judge et al., 1997; Bono & Judge, 2003).
Although initial research on core self-evaluations has been directed towards job satisfaction, its literature has increased considerably, including studies on its relationship with motivation, work performance (Bono & Judge, 2003; Erez & Judge, 2001), and engagement (Rich et al., 2010). In line with Rich et al. (2010)--the first to evaluate the relationship between core self-evaluations and engagement--we also propose a positive relationship between these two constructs.
H1: An employee's core self-evaluations are positively related to his/her engagement.
Regarding work-related resources, Macey and Schneider (2008) point out that work characteristics (e.g. challenge, variety and autonomy) and leadership influence engagement. Peer social support, the nature of leadership, and leader-member exchange quality were also identified as antecedents of engagement (Bakker, 2011; Bakker et al., 2014). Rich et al. (2010) found evidence that perceived organizational support and value congruence contribute to engagement. In short, resource-rich work environments tend to foster work engagement (Bakker, 2011; Bakker et al., 2011).
In this research, we propose that perceptions of HR management practices and leader-member exchange quality (LMX), which are variables related to work resources, are antecedents of engagement. In addition, we also examine the relationship between engagement and intention to quit. These topics are detailed below.
2.2 Human Resource management systems
The literature on strategic human resource...
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