Positive Error Orientation as a Promoter of the Learning Process in Organizations.
| Autor | Rodrigues, Henrique Geraldo |
INTRODUCTION
After Edmondson's (1996) and Rybowiak et al.'s (1999) papers, investigations about learning from errors have been directed toward a deeper understanding of the nature encompassing the phenomenon in its diverse dimensions. There have been studies that explore the individual dimension of learning from errors (eg., Zhao & Olivera, 2006), in terms of teams (e.g., Tjosvold et al., 2004) and organizations (e.g., Dyck et al., 2005), as well as those in which the integration of these dimensions of analysis was sought (e.g., Dahlin et al., 2018).
Regarding individual learning, the phenomenon has also been analyzed through the relationship with several contextual and individual antecedent factors, which act as facilitators or barriers to learning from errors. We note the focus on factors as leadership styles and behavior (Ye et al., 2019), psychological safety (Lee et al. 2020), organizational climate for learning from errors (Grohnert et al 2017), emotional reactions to error (Zhao et al. 2018), and work motivation (Zhou et al. 2020). Moreover, there are those researchers that have investigated the influence of error attributes--as in who committed the error and its seventy--in learning from errors (Horvath et al 2021).
However, empirical studies have not covered the theme through an integrative perspective of individual learning from errors, in which it is analyzed as a result of a process made up of error detection and correction stages and which is influenced by individual characteristics and resources, as well as the work context. In the literature, the lack of measuring scales for error detection is noted, even though this represents the first crucial step toward initiating the process of learning from errors (Frese & Keith, 2015). In addition, previous literature does not deepen the understanding of the relationship between the stages of error correction and learning derived from the error, except for a few studies that point in this direction (Bauer & Mulder, 2007; Leicher & Mulder, 2016).
Besides, the approaches and models proposed for the study of individual learning from errors do not make any distinction between one's own errors and those committed by others. Horvath et al. (2021) show that workers tend to learn more from errors made by themselves than those committed by peers. A possible explanation for this could be the occurrence of more intense emotional and cognitive reactions to their own errors than those related to the errors of others. This could force individuals to adopt an attitude of greater attention and involvement toward errors committed by themselves.
Through recognition of the importance of the procedural approach to the study and understanding of individual learning from error, we propose and test a model of orientation to individual learning from one's own error (OILOE model). We define orientation to individual learning from one's own error as the propensity of the individual to behave in a favorable way to acquire new learning, under error situations at the workplace.
The OILOE model is based on a processual perspective. It is the integrator of the distinct stages of the approach to the error, and it brings together individual and contextual elements that influence positively this process and facilitate learning from errors. According to the model, the individual learning from error--the endogenous variable--is a result of a process that begins with the error detection (Frese & Keith, 2015; Zhao & Olivera, 2006), which, in turn, leads to error correction (Bauer & Mulder, 2007).
Nevertheless, how the error detection stage occurs is influenced by individual elements we call positive error orientation (Rybowiak et al. 1999), while the way the error correction stage is carried out is influenced by organizational factors that facilitate learning from error (Putz et al. 2013). In addition, the existence of organizational factors that facilitate learning strengthens the individual positive error orientation.
Our intention is to contribute to the literature by the proposition of a model that enables the analysis of individual learning from errors in diverse contexts. By applying the same model, it may be possible to generate the widening of the understanding into this type of learning and its relationship to mam antecedents. From the practical point of view, the model may contribute to the understanding of heads of people and culture about the organizational members' perceptions on their own willingness and conditions offered through the organizational context to engage in learning from errors. Thereby, managers can identify actions that lead to an increase in this type of learning.
This article is structured as follows: first, the theoretical foundation and the development of hypotheses are put forward; next, the methodological procedures and results are described; finally, a discussion of the results is delivered.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESES
The error and learning from errors
Errors are inherent to human action, and as such refer to "... inappropriate actions committed while performing a task" (Ohlsson, 1996, p. 242). Such actions concern unintentional or avoidable deviations from goals, standards, or any unexpected result (Cannon & Edmondson, 2001; Dyck et al. 2005), that are the result of individual decisions and behaviors (Zhao & Olivera, 2006).
Despite the emphasis placed on conceptual definitions of the phenomenon on the association between human error and negative results (Bauer & Mulder 2007; Cannon & Edmondson, 2001; Goodman et al., 2011), we understand that errors will not always lead to negative consequences (Lei et al., 2016). Naturally, in some specific work contexts, such as transportation industries, hospitals, or engineering and construction companies, errors can lead to negative consequences both for the client and user, as well as for organizational reputation and results (Ibrion et al., 2021; Tucker & Edmondson, 2003). For these reasons, errors should be ostensibly avoided.
In other environments, on the contrary, such as those of startups that insert new solutions into the market, errors are shown as an inherent element of work processes. Through experimentation, organizations gain improvements in products and services, and process stability (Bledow et al., 2009; Cannon & Edmondson, 2005; Lei et al., 2016). In both situations, however, when errors occur, it is necessary to learn how to avoid their repetition.
Learning from an error involves directing the individual cognition at two mam activities: error detection and error correction (Ohlsson, 1996). The learning results from the adequate approach and handling of the error situation, in which the individuals employ their knowledge and ability for reflective analysis to understand the situation, and generate and implement actions required to correct the error (Bauer & Mulder, 2007; Zhao, 2011).
Adopting this approach, one may be required to build new knowledge bases, which improve the work process (efficiency and quality of process outputs), which are necessary for error correction activities. However, we emphasize that learning from one's own errors is not restricted to specific knowledge to block error repetition. In addition to improving the ability to handle errors, learning from errors can have a positive influence on the individual's self-development, i.e., the way in which the individuals seek and acquire relevant information to increase their performance (Zhou et al., 2020).
Therefore, we define the individual learning from error variable as the acquisition of new information or experiences from an error situation, which lead to changes in attitude, behaviors, and/or knowledge, within the work context. Such learning can be acquired both by individual error correction processes and by collective ones. In the latter, there is the involvement of colleagues, managers, or even individuals outside the organization, such as clients and suppliers.
Individual learning from error is the endogenous (dependent) variable of the OILOE model. Next, we provide the theoretical background for the remaining model constructs, as explained in the introduction.
Organizational factors that facilitate learning from errors
The productive approach to an error is a process influenced by not only individual attitudes and behaviors, but also by organizational factors, relevant to the work context (Harteis et al., 2008; Zhao & Olivera, 2006). Putz et al (2013) identified four categories of organizational factors that can influence learning from errors: supervisor's behavior colleagues' behavior, task structures and operating procedures, and organizational principles and values.
The supervisor's and colleagues' behavior factors refer to ways that managers and colleagues act as facilitators of learning from errors. Edmondson (1999) shows that psychological safety--that is a"... shared belief that the team is safe for interpersonal risk taking" (p. 354)--influences one's individual willingness to admit, reveal, and discuss one's own errors. The establishment of psychological safety, in turn, is dependent on the supportive behavior of leaders, and through which they help individuals deal with and talk about errors (Cannon & Edmondson, 2001). Zhao (2011) verified that an attitude toward intolerance to errors, noted in managers, is related both positively and significantly to the negative emotions experienced by employees in relation to their own errors.
The task structures and operating procedures factor addresses adequate conditions and opportunities toward errors, through an organizational support context that guarantees resources, information, expert assistance, and training necessary to perform tasks. This perspective is related to the notion proposed by Harteis et al. (2008) of workplace culture of learning from mistakes.
In such organizations, people have access to opportunities to search for sufficient...
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